IBADAT DEFINED: CLARIFYING THE AMBIGUITY
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| Ibadat Defined: Clarifying The Ambiguity |
Chapter 4. The Ritual Practice: Ibadat
Islam, in its ideal form does not distinguish the sacred from the profane. Nasr claims that within the unitary perspectives of Islam, all aspects of life, as well as degrees of cosmic manifestation, are governed by a single principle and are unified by a common centre. Everything is essentially sacred and nothing profane because everything bears within itself the fragrance of the Divine.[17] Nasr seems to justify a contention that Islam looks at the individual as a whole and requires the individual to submit himself completely to God, as is witnessed in the fact that every Muslim utters in his salat: my prayer, my sacrifice, my life and my death belong to Allah; He has no partner and I am ordered to be among those who submit (Muslim).[18] A true Muslim thus should always be thinking, saying and acting solely for the pleasure of God, as his life and death have been submitted to Him. This contention presupposes the conception of worship or ibadat in Islam to be comprehensive, to include almost everything of any individual's activity. Worship is an all inclusive term for all that God loves of external and internal sayings and actions of a person. It includes rituals as well as beliefs, social activities, and personal contributions to the welfare of fellow human beings.
Nasr and the other commentators are, of course, speaking about norms or ideals. In reality perhaps, not many Muslims, can achieve this condition or maintain continuously for twenty-four hours this spirit of worship. Actually, as Denny says, Islam defines itself not only based on norms, but also by its acts, that is, Muslims define Islam in its various forms without even being conscious of doing so.[19]
The Kaula-Gusti Relationship
The popular argument over the broader and narrower meaning of ibadat incorporates both semantic and verbal considerations. The local term ibadat or ibadah, is a direct borrowing from Arabic ‘ibada. It means, according to Pak Sholeh, “to enslave oneself to God (ngaula ning Gusti Allah).” Semantically (munggu logat), the notion of ngaula (to enslave) entails at least two implications. The first is affirmation of the existing bond between man and God in a slave-Master (kaula-Gusti) relationship where man is the slave or servant (kaula) and God is the Master (Gusti); the second is an affirmation that man, the servant (kaula), has the task of obeying the Master (Gusti), both by doing continuously what the Master orders and by avoiding what the Master forbids. However, acknowledging that the God is the Master who, despite His absolute power and omnipotence, is exceedingly beneficent and merciful, giving the servants life and invaluable nourishment, has a third implication; that is, that the servant has a moral obligation to express thankfulness, to do his utmost in his service, and to be generous in his obedience. The semantic implications of ngaula match properly the three principles on which the religion of Islam is founded. The first is ‘to have faith’ (iman), from which the Decree of Faith comes and later becomes the subject of elaborate discussion in theology (ilmu tauhid or kalam). The second principle is ‘total obedience’ (islam), the outward manifestation of faith which is subsumed under the Five Pillars and from which emerged the Divine Law (hukum syara’ or syari'ah) set down by the scholars (ulama) into Islamic Jurisprudence (pekih or fiqh). To ensure and verify this outward manifestation of obedience comes the third principle, ‘deference’ (ihsan), from which tasawuf (cleansing the heart), which incorporates both Islamic ethic (akhlaq) and Sufism, derive. Tasawuf and hukum syara’, stand in a mode of complementary validation to each other. Pak Sholeh concluded that ibadat, in the broader sense, brings into practice the three founding principles of Islamic religion by way of ngaula; whereas, in the narrower sense, ibadat refers to the observance of required duties, subsumed under the five pillars; that is, the formal outward manifestation of faith.[20]
The second argument about the broader and narrower meaning of ibadat reflects a somewhat operational argument. It starts from the belief that one's faith is in constant oscillation between maximum and minimum, from high to low and vice-versa. For this, again Pak Sholeh said:
… man's faith is of course unstable, on one occasion it is thick, on another it is thin. When it is thick, one's awareness of God is intact, and thus a person keeps remembering God while thinking, saying and working. But when a person's faith is thin he forgets God, not only while working but also while doing nothing.[21]
The corollary is that one's devotion to God may alternate between being full and being partial. When the faith is at its height, one will be fully aware of one's status as a slave of God (kaulane Gusti Allah) and submit oneself, one's life, and one's death, solely to God. The person eventually devotes what he thinks, says and does solely for the sake of God, thence everything becomes ‘ibadat in the broader sense. Indication of this kind of devotion, and at the same time its minimum requirement, is the presence of awareness which manifests itself as intention (niyat). According to Pak Sholeh, it is enough to have intention in one's heart but it is much better to pronounce it vocally. In Islam, the role of intention is crucial without which one's work will not be an ibadat.[22] It is in the presence of intention that everything, irrespective whether it is a worldly or afterlife activity (bli perduli apa urusan dunya atawa urusan akherat), is religious and thus, in Nasr words, ‘everything is essentially sacred and nothing is profane because everything bears within itself the fragrance of the Divine.’ Therefore, ibadat, in this sense, may range from expressing daily courtesies to such things as the formal and solemn invocation both in and outside of formal prescribed prayers, and other forms of worship. It embraces a wide spectrum of actions and is akin to, and sometimes used interchangeably with, amal (‘aml), meaning work, another word which points to the same thing referred to by ibadat. Thus, the distinction between amal and ibadat becomes elusive. Both ibadat and amal require niyat (intention) which becomes the stamp that the work is for God. Another way to ensure intention is by uttering or murmuring Basmalah (a phrase, saying ‘In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful’). Thus, doing any (good) thing, a religious or worldly matter, becomes ibadat, by merely preceding it with Basmalah.
Usually an activity referred to by amal is technical and focussed on social action such as helping others and giving charity. In ibadat, on the other hand, the activity is usually of individual concern yet not necessarily related to the five pillars of Islam, such as reciting the Qur'an, du'a (invocation) and exalting God. As the difference is elusive, it cannot be precisely explained. People, for example, often say that du'a is undeniably ibadat, feeding an orphan is amal but, other ordinary technical and mundane acts such as going to work, going to school and participation in social gatherings, are also said to be ibadat because doing these things, from the broader perspective, is essentially a religious duty; hence, not doing these things is a neglect and thus, can be sinful. Moreover, amal and ibadat are frequently combined to become a compound word, amal-ibadat, used either with an emphasis on or in reference to a more general notion covering both.
The notion of amal and ibadat attached to one's action diminishes, even disappears, when, at other times, a person's faith lessens, and the person concerned is no longer aware of his faith. This is the situation about which God warned through His testimony of time: “By the time, Verily man is in loss, Except such as have Faith”[23] This warning, according to Pak Sholeh, implies God's mercifulness. Acknowledging man's faith is in constant alternation (from high to low), He is always willing to save man from loss. The enforcement of (formal) ‘ibadat, especially the prescribed prayer five times a day, and other worships of the five pillars, helps man to remember Him periodically so that what he thinks, says and does has spiritual value and becomes amal and ibadat.[24]
When one officially becomes a member of the community of believers (ummat Islam),[25] his membership card is the pronouncement of syahadat, the first pillar of Islam; the standing rule is the syari'ah (canon law in Islam); and the prescribed duty is observance of the other four pillars, the ibadat in the narrower sense. It is narrow in the strictest sense because it is the prerequisite, the minimum requirement for being a true Muslim. In addition, if one would like to be generous and obtain more merit than he can obtain from the prescribed duties, one is welcome to do so by performing the ‘religiously recommended (sunna) activities.’
A recommended activity may not necessarily derive from the fiqh books; it may find its roots in tasawuf. The ulama tasawuf (tasawuf scholars, mostly enunciators of Sufism) who attempted to get close to God, according to the Cirebonese belief, have set forth various meritorious activities that are supposed to enable a person to establish a better relationship with God (hablum minallah or habl min Allah) as well as with his fellow human beings (hablumminan nas or habl min al-nas), dead or alive. Reciting the Qur'an outside the prescribed prayer, for example, is not set down in fiqh but it is encouraged by tasawuf; so too is helping other people. Pak Sholeh said that according to the principle of tasawuf, reciting the Qur'an, even without knowing the meaning, reflects sympathy and relish for God's words; uttering kalimah tayibah (good phrases), such as exalting and praising God, shows a sort of courtesy to Him; so also is reciting salawat in reverence for His messengers. All these things are considered as attempts to establish a better relationship with God. Visiting the tombs of pious figures, praying at grave sides for the welfare of the deceased involve establishing good relations with the dead; whereas, teaching, helping others by such means as giving material support, showing sympathy, giving advice and showing courtesy, all belong to attempts to establish good relations with the living. God will never be jealous if a person has good relations with his fellows, dead or alive; on the contrary, He will be pleased because establishing good relations with others is part of His order, and reward is provided for those who do so. Moreover, doing those things can even be used as a means to seek His pleasure and thence it is part of ibadat in the broader sense. In Cirebon, these types of activities are said to belong to the recommended activities and thereby are ibadat in the broader sense.
Following Pak Sholeh, the Cirebonese seem to conceive human actions as having a complex configuration. Diagram 4.1 shows how the configuration may seem to be. In the first place, actions may either be ibadat or non-ibadat, depending on whether or not they are based on faith. Further, faith-based actions (ibadat) fall into two categories: the formal submission (islam) and showing deference (ihsan). The formal submission (islam) transforms into syari'ah and is set down in fiqh. The fiqh enunciates both the laws and rules of ‘formal duties or worship’ (ibadat in the narrower sense), subsumed in the five pillars, and rules of interpersonal contracts (mu'amalat) such as those regarding marriage and inheritance. Showing deference, on the other hand, transforms into tasawuf which encourages good relations either with God in the form of additional ibadat, or with other creatures, human or non human, dead or alive, in the form of, among other things, ethics and amal saleh. As islam and ihsan are inseparable, both explicate the faith (iman), so too do formal obedience and showing deference, the fiqh and the tasawuf.[26]
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| Scope of Ibadat in Cirebonese popular conception |
Following the above explanation, activities belonging to ibadat (in the narrower sense) can be divided into two kinds, one derived from jurisprudence (fiqh), the other from tasawuf. Each is dialectically related to the other in a mode of complementary validation. In fact, fiqh is a prerequisite and thus it comes first before tasawuf, but enactment of fiqh without tasawuf is incomplete. Similarly, enactment of tasawuf without fiqh is invalid. Fiqh and tasawuf are thus like two sides of the same coin. K.H. Abdullah Abbas (affectionately known as Ki Dulah) of Pesantren Buntet, quoted Al-Ghazali's words in Aabic and then the translation in Cirebonese:
One who observes only those things set down in fiqh without observing tasawuf, (still) commits sins. And one who observes only tasawuf without observing those things set down in fiqh, commits heresies.[27]
In addition, ibadat or worship, according to Ki Dulah, is working with God (Allah). The fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) which explicates the Divine Law (syari'ah) identifies what is obligatory (wajib), recommended (sunna), licit (mubah), illicit (makruh), and forbidden (haram). Bound up in these legal constrains, man usually tends to fulfil only the obligatory, unwilling to do the recommended, and desires the illicit or the forbidden. Man, however, is probably safe enough if he can fulfil the obligatory and do only the licit, but the temptation for doing the illicit and forbidden is so great that, without special effort, man is quite unlikely to be able to avoid the illicit and the forbidden completely because those things are present everywhere, in and outside the body. Tasawuf provides ways to counterbalance this tendency with encouragement and training to do the obligatory work properly and earnestly, and separate man from what is illicit and forbidden.
The obligatory duty required in fiqh, Ki Dulah said, accounts for only a small portion of man's life. Strict fulfilment of what is required is like working part time, while tasawuf makes it full time. The prescribed prayer (salat) is the most pressing duty one may think of because it must be observed five times a day. But, the time to do it takes only less than five minutes. The total time required for it is thus, less than 25 minutes a day, or about 1.7 per cent of the 24 hour period. The second hardest is fasting, once a year for 29 or 30 days, each day takes about 13 or 14 hours. The approximate time taken for fasting is therefore 360 hours or less, or about 4.0 per cent of the total hours of a year. Zakat, amount to just 2.5 per cent a year, taken from the surplus one keeps; whereas the hajj is required only once during a life time, and only for those who can afford it. Thus, even if we do the prescribed duties perfectly, according to Ki Dulah, we can count that the proportion of our life-time intentionally directed to God is very minimal, while outside that proportion, Iblis and setan are working restlessly to lead man astray. Indeed the greatest proportion of man's worldly life is unsecured. The danger of falling astray is clearly evident. Greed, snobbery, arrogance, unguided lusts and passions, according to Ki Dulah, penetrate quite easily into the heart of everyone at anytime and at any place. God's testimony in ‘Surat Wal'asri,’ saying that man is in constant loss unless he has faith, does righteous deeds, joins together in the mutual enjoining of truth, patience and constancy, shows its relevance in this context; and, it is here the tasawuf beneficially comes.[28]
Speaking about tasawuf, Ki Dulah said, does not necessarily mean speaking about being an ascetic or following the advanced mystical path, the tharlqa (tarekat) developed by certain Sufi orders, although certainly following this path is one of the significant outward indications of a commitment to tasawuf. In its broader sense, tasawuf is to cleanse the heart from contaminations occurring in daily life. From the perspective of tasawuf, the expression of ibadat may take various forms ranging from the earnest belief in the Oneness of God to the removing of even the smallest obstacles from people's way. Doing good to people and to nature with generosity for the sake of God (lillahi ta'ala) is already doing tasawuf. Earnest and generous submission of a wife to her husband and a husband to his wife in a harmonious relationship is also tasawuf. So is eating with an awareness that by means of eating one can maintain energetic work and thereby a person can support his family.
In addition, within ibadat of either the broader or narrower sense, there is not only a burden, but a joy. Most ibadat bears an atmosphere of cheer and festivity. An earnest person, after doing certain ibadat, would feel some sort of release from tension. The joy of fasting and the excitement of the hajj are claimed by many people. Thus, Ki Dulah remarked, there is no ground to think that ibadat is burdensome. On the contrary, for some, especially those who have been accustomed, ibadat, both from the perspective of syari'ah and from tasawuf is a pleasant undertaking, simple and easy to do. It might be a burden for some, who prefer thinking rather than doing, but ibadat is to be done, not (only) to be thought.
In short, when one is willing to observe the required duties earnestly, the person is performing syari'ah and tasawuf at the same time. In addition, anyone can make everything religiously meritorious by simply adding an intention, even if it is only in the heart, that what one does is for the sake of God. It is in this way that any action can become ibadat. In other words, if doing something is preceded by an intention to please God, that is ibadat. Indeed intention brings the worldly life into the religious; it needs nothing but a remembrance of God and earnestness. Tasawuf is, primarily, maintaining this awareness to achieve earnestness of obedience.[29]
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[17] Nasr, S.H. (1981), Islamic Life and Thought, Boston: George Allen & Unwin, p.7.
[18] This utterance can be found in most fiqh books.
[19] Denny, F.M. (1985), ‘Islamic Ritual’, p 77.
[20] Field notes.
[21] Indepth interview, 5-5-1992. Its Javanese expression is: “… imane wong iku ya bli tetep, ana kalane kandel ana kalane tipis. Lamun imane lagi kandel ya elinge ning Gusti Allah bli ucul, awit krentege ati, metune pengucap, sampe pragat menggawe tetep kelingen ning Gusti Allah. Tapi ari imane lagi tipis, aja maning lagi menggawe, lagi meneng bae gan ya klalen.”
[22] See Chapter One.
[23] QS 103:1–3.
[24] Field notes.
[25] One informant in Kalitengah compared the community of believers to a club (perkumpulan). The most familiar perkumpulan for him was a cooperative (koopearsi), especially Batik Cooperative, in which membership is the key to access to rights to communal property.
[26] Ki Dulah gave a long illustration to explain the relationship between ibadat usually set forth in fiqh (‘ibadat syare'at or formal ibadat’) and ibadat developed in tasawuf (‘ibadat suftyah.’). He said among other things that the ‘formal’ nature of the former and the ‘informal’ or ‘courteous’ nature in the latter. Two parties, for example, may have a deal straightforwardly to the points they are dealing with. But such a relationship is arid because it touches only the rational or physical aspect of human nature, without taking into account the emotional or spiritual aspects. To make a relationship lively and sensuous, courtesies are needed. Thus, a pre-prayer puji-pujian, for example, is a kind of courtesy, before formal ‘meeting’ with the Lord (madep ning Pengeran) proceeds. In fact, according to Ki Dulah, Islam involves both ratio and emotion of man. (See further sections).
[27] Indepth interview, 11-8-1992. Its Javanese expression is: “Sapa wonge kang nglakoni amalan feqih bae bli karo nglakoni amalan tasawuf, wongiku faseq. Lan sapa wonge kang nglakoni tasawuf bae bli karo nglakoni amalan feqih wongiku zindiq.”
[28] Surat Wal'asri refers to QS 103: 1–3 (Al-’Asr).
[29] In this context, “ritual” is a very interesting subject for scholarship. Anthropology has contributed much to unpacking its intricacy. Studies on this issue have been considerable but the more it is studied the more intricate it seems to be. The very notion of ritual as a particular kind of social action poses crucial questions revolving around the value of dichotomisation, whether sacred or profane, collective or individual, static or dynamic, action or thought, structure or antistructure (Bell, C. 1992). Seymour-Smith's suggestion cited earlier that perhaps ultimately it is unnecessary to define ritual, or to delimit it from ceremony on the one hand or from instrumental or practical action on the other because of the extreme difficulty of doing so, does not seem to resolve the problems of ritual automatically. This is more apparent, I think, when the subject is related to Islam, more specifically, traditional Islam in Cirebon where people consider any action intended to please God to be ibadat (worship including ritual). The boundary between activities which are religiously valid and those which invalid, is only one of an intention. Without intention, an activity, even the most ritualised and formalised one, becomes profane in Durkheimian sense. Similarly, even the most profane or technical action becomes sacred merely because of the intention. It is the intention which brings the profane into the sacred, and the sacred becomes profane when intention is absent.
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Source: Muhaimin, Abdul Ghoffur. (2006) The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon : Ibadat and Adat Among Javanese Muslims. ANU Press
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